Engineering Education in Ghana

2.2.4 EducationEducation serves as an engine for economic growing through the accretion of human capital. Education is strongly associated with boosting degrees of societal capital ( Campbell, 2006 ) . the act or procedure of leaving or geting general cognition, developing the powers of concluding and judgement, and by and large of fixing oneself or others intellectually for mature life ( Dictionary.com, 2014 ) .2.2.5 ENGINEERING EducationEngineering instruction is the activity of learning cognition and rules related to the professional pattern of technology. It includes the initial instruction for going an applied scientist and any advanced instruction and specialisations that follow. Engineering instruction is typically accompanied by extra scrutinies and supervised preparation as the demands for a professional technology licence.2.3 Technology Education IN GHANA OVER THE YEARSEngineering instruction in the so Gold Coast dates back to the 1930’s. In August 1931, the Colonial Government requested Achimota College in Accra to form an technology class to develop Africans for senior assignments in the Public Works Department, the railroads and subsequently, the mines. The class, which was based on the external grade course of study of the University of London, consisted of four and a half old ages of survey at Achimota, followed by between three and four old ages of structured post-graduation practical preparation. Initially, the class offered at Achimota led to grades in electrical, mechanical and civil technology, but with the enlargement of activities in the excavation sector in the Gold Coast, it became necessary for the School to spread out its class offerings to include excavation technology. In malice of the troubles it experienced, the Achimota Engineering School managed to turn out a sum of 25 applied scientists before the start of the Second World War compelled it to close down. These applied scientists were to play cardinal functions in the imme diate post-independence development of Ghana and besides served in other African states every bit good as working for international bureaus. With the constitution of the University College of the Gold Coast in Legon, Accra in 1948, university instruction was phased out of the Achimota College campus. Unfortunately, no proviso was made for the transportation of the technology classs to the new University College, therefore the preparation of applied scientists was interrupted between 1948 and 1952 when a School of Engineering was once more established as portion of the new Kumasi College of Technology and the equipment, and some staff of the Achimota Engineering School transferred to Kumasi to organize the karyon of the new school. From 1952 to 1955, the School of Engineering prepared its pupils for rank of the assorted Professional Institutions in the United Kingdom. The formal preparation of alumnus applied scientists of assorted specialisations commenced in 1955 in particular rela tionship with the University of London and pupils were prepared to take Partss I, II and III of the University of London Bachelor of Science ( Engineering ) External grade scrutinies. The first professional applied scientists produced by the Kumasi School of Engineering, who were all civil applied scientists, graduated with the university of London External B.Sc. ( Eng. ) grade in June 1959. The School of Engineering began to present its ain technology grades in June 1964.2.3.1 Technology Education FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENTRelevance of technology plans to the demands of industry has sometimes been interpreted as a state of affairs in which the merchandises of an technology plan are to be trained to be of immediate usage to industry after small or no post-graduation preparation. Pressures, hence, be given to be put on African technology modules to cut down on the content of the theoretical facets of their classs in favour of vocational facets – force per unit areas which are, i n bend, frequently ferociously resisted by technology pedagogues. Yet, technology plans in African Universities stand to derive enormously when there is active co-operation between technology pedagogues and the chief consumers of technology work force based on common regard and clear grasp of the functions of the assorted stakeholders. It is besides anticipated that the technological spread between the developed and the underdeveloped universe will go even wider in the twenty-first Century, therefore, doing technology preparation even more situation-specific. This will intend that Ghana will hold to depend even more on her national establishments for the preparation of the technology work force relevant to their development demands. It will, hence, be necessary for the professional associations and the preparation establishments in Africa to co-operate even more closely in specifying the content of the technology course of study of the twenty-first Century.2.4 DESIGNING AN ENGINEERI NG SCHOOL2.4.1CONDUSIVE TEACHING EnvironmentTo forestall the assorted jobs pupils and lectors face in the schoolroom, it is of import to set into consideration the agreement of the schoolroom. Savage 2009 indicates that, the physical agreement of schoolrooms plays a prima function in the character defining of pupils and goes a long manner in bettering the academic public presentation of pupils. If a schoolroom is non good designed, it affects the end product of pupils, hence hindering on the intent for which talks are intended. The research on schoolroom environments suggests that schoolrooms should be organized to suit a assortment of activities throughout the twenty-four hours and to run into the teacher’s instructional ends ( Savage, 1999 ; Weinstein, 1992 ) . The criterions for finding what spacial lay-out is most appropriate to carry through these maps include: ways to maximise the teacher’s ability to see and be seen by all his or her pupils ; ease easiness of mo tion throughout the schoolroom ; minimize distractions so that pupils are best able to actively prosecute in faculty members ; supply each pupil and the instructor with his or her ain personal infinite ; and guaranting that each pupil can see presentations and stuffs posted in the schoolroom. Seating agreement in talk halls are really important since it indicates whether there will be societal exchanges in the category is task behaviorally delighting. It is besides really important to forestall high traffic countries in schoolroom designs, such as waste basket countries. Critically, it is really of import that, pupils have a clear position of the lector at every point in clip ( Quin et al. , 2000 ) . In making so, the lector should besides be giving freedom in his motion through the talk room or schoolroom. There is some grounds that it is utile to restrict ocular and audile stimulation that may deflect pupils with attending and behaviour jobs ( Bettenhausen, 1998 ; Cummings, Quinn et al. , 2000 ) . The physical agreement of the schoolroom can function as a powerful setting event for supplying pupils effectual direction and facilitate ( or inhibit ) positive instruction or learning interactions. As with other facets of direction, the physical agreement of the schoolroom should be brooding of the diverse cultural and lingual features of the pupils and be consistent with specific scholar demands.2.4.2 STAIRWAYSStairwaies are seen as connections between at least two different degrees. Vertical risers and horizontal paces are connected to stairss over a incline. It can besides be defined as a system of stairss by which people and objects may go through from one degree of a edifice to another. One of the most critical parts of school traffic design is the staircase, which should be located in relation to the inclusive traffic form, maintaining in head burden distribution, safety, finish of pupils between periods and riddance of cross traffic. The staircases should be designed for unsophisticated, fast, and safe motion of male childs and misss. Stairways non merely supply entree to and from assorted floor degrees, but they are used at every period for the perpendicular circulation of pupils altering categories. It is of import that staircases should be designed to guarantee that male childs and misss with books under their weaponries may walk side by side to avoid congestion ; a breadth of 4 pess 8 inches to 5 pess between bannisters is recommended. Stairwaies should be of fireproof building, taking straight to the out-of-doorss. They should be equipped with smoke-control installations, dividing the stairwells from the corridors which they serve.2.4.3 CorridorA well-designed school has corridors that accommodate the free and informal motion of pupils. The narrow corridor normally requires formal, regimented, and supervised traffic flow. The walls of corridors should be free of all projections. Heat units, imbibing fountains, fire asphyxiators, cabinets, doors, and show instances should be recessed in the involvement of pupil safety. Acoustic belongingss are desirable to cut down hall noise. Corridors should be good lighted, with exigency proviso in the event of chief power failure. Floor covering should be lasting, nonskid, and easy to keep. The maximal length of unbroken corridors should non transcend 150 pess to 200 pess longer subdivisions give an unwanted position.2.5 FORMAL SPACES2.5.1 CLASSROOMSClassrooms have comparatively straightforward demands: line of sight, good acoustics, and a focal point at the forepart of the room helping as the platform for instructors to talk. Physical restraints such as the ability of pupils to turn around in their seats, can restrict the success of a designed schoolroom infinite. The room may be designed for pupil coaction. Seatings may be arranged in mated rows with specially design chairs that allow pupils to confront each other for coaction. Apart from the schoolroom and formal infinites, educational establishments are besides designed with the proviso of informal infinites in head.2.5.2 OfficesThe finding of whether an office or cell will be assigned is based on an person ‘s occupation description and place within the organisation. Factors such as confidentiality or security demands, figure of employees supervised and particular equipment demands will be evaluated. Offices should be placed near the inside nucleus infinite. This increases the incursion of natural visible radiation into the edifice. When it is impractical to turn up offices near the inside nucleus, door running lights and borrowed visible radiations should be considered to convey daytime into the interior infinites. Translucent glazing such as frosted or patterned glass can be used if there is a ocular privateness demand. Offices located in the inside of the edifice infinite should be provided with a door or running light assembly or a borrowed visi ble radiation ( interior window ) in at least one wall at a tallness above the finished floor that allows ocular privateness while conveying visible radiation from the exterior.2.6 REQUIREMENTS OF LECTURE HALL SPACES( The followers demands of a schoolroom design have been taken from the â€Å"University of Maryland, Baltimore County General Lecture Hall Design Guidelines, and Revised August 25, 2000 ) . Physical Access and Movement – The design shall take into history the flow of pupils both in and out of the infinite and within the infinite every bit good as the demand for the teacher to travel about in the forepart of the room. 1. Sufficient infinite is needed near the forepart of the room for puting up audiovisual equipment, such as projection screens and charts. 2. Ceilings should be a upper limit of 9.5 pess high. 3. Light from Windowss should, if possible, come over a student ‘s left shoulder. No lector should be required to confront the Windowss when turn toing the category from the normal teaching place. 4. Ceilings and/or walls should be acoustically treated. 5. Floors should hold a cushioning stuff. 6. The schoolroom should hold as quiet a location as possible, off from noisy out-of-door countries. Ease of entree to specialise installations outside the academic unit should be ensured.2.6.1 DOORSThe flow of pupils should be the major factor in finding the location of entrywaies. Entrances should be located to avoid pupil traffic go throughing through non-instructional countries. In add-on, big Numberss of pupils going in corridors and hallways can bring forth unwanted noise. In finding the size of entrywaies and issues, constructing codifications should non be the lone standard. The flow of pupils in and out of suites can hold a major impact on size of entrywaies and issues. The design of entrywaies, issues, stepss, corridors, and exterior waies should take into history between-class pupil traffic. For illustration, it is non realistic to presume that a room will be wholly vacant when pupils begin geting for the following category. Provision should hence be made for vision panels in entryway doors. They could be tinted. Besides, proviso should be made for door Michigans to protect the wall surface.2.6.2 FLOOR, WALLS AND CEILINGSIn smaller schoolrooms, it is common to utilize vinyl composing tile or rug. Rug should be provided in all suites unless subject particular related classs dictate otherwise. The ceiling tallness is another of import consideration when planing the infinite. For illustration, because a projection screen must be big plenty to expose images of equal size, it must be placed high plenty from the floor to supply unobstructed sight lines. This normally requires a ceiling tallness higher than the standard eight pess.2.6.3 NOISE CONTROLOther of import factors must be considered in the design. To avoid the noise generated by their operation and usage, peddling machines must be located as far off as possible. Trash and recycling containers should be located near the peddling machines. Restrooms and imbibing fountains should be located nearby and should be designed to manage pupil usage between categories. To forestall unwanted noise transmittal, public toilets should non portion common walls, floors, or ceilings with instructional infinites

A Letter from Ponyboy

Greetings to you! How are you, older brother?   It’s been quite a while since I sent you a letter. My mistake. Sorry for that. I’ve been busy for the last few weeks here insane Diego. My study is eating up most of my time. Right now, we are approaching already the finals week.A lot of requirements are already on my list. But don’t you worry brother, I am okay. I manage to keep healthy and strong despite the conflicts of time in my part-time job and schooling. And speaking of work, I have some good news for you. The manager of the food chain I am working at was impressed by my dedication to my job. In fact, I was chosen to be the crew of the month.Because of that, I got an additional compensation in my salary. Not too big, but large enough to spend for my thesis. It was a big help since I badly needed to finish my thesis as the final submission of it is nearing. Of course, I have to graduate this semester. That was my promise to you, right? Don’t worry, D arry. All of your spending for my schooling will finally come to an end. A month from now, I will be called â€Å"Lawyer Ponyboy Curtis†. However, I will not be able to reach this status if not because of you.Thank you so much, Darry. I really appreciate all the things you have done and sacrificed for me. I know that you don’t want to marry your fiancà ©e Lindsay until I haven’t finished my studies. But I told you for several times that you don’t need to do that. You don’t have to sacrifice your own happiness just for my sake. I can manage myself now. I am a man now.Being thirty years old is no longer young. But what did you do? You still insisted to pay half of my tuition. I told you to keep them for yourself and for your future. You, too, are no longer young. You must build a family of your own, just like what Sodapop did. You’re such a stubborn. No wonder why they called you Superman back then. You’re such a strong-willed person. But no matter how strong-willed you are, you must promise me that after my graduation, you will take care of your personal life.By the way, how’s work after being promoted as chief lieutenant of the Oklahoma Police Department? Doing well? How’s peace and security there? You know what, I’m very happy with your current situation, actually, with the situations of us three—you, Sodapop, and I. After the long battle between the Socs and the greasers, I was glad that you decided to study and be a cop.I haven’t told you this, but I want you to know now that you are my greatest idol. When I saw how you managed to study while working, I admire you. Aside from that, you managed to raise me and Sodapop well after that horrible loss of our parents. Thank you for that.What’s up with Sodapop, by the way? Have the two of you seen each other lately? I had the chance to meet him personally last month after he visited his in-laws here in California. I also ha d the chance to meet the kids. Oh, Paul was so cute.He’s so like Sodapop—charming and good-looking. I bet when he grows up, he will be a Sodapop the Second. And have you heard about the good news? Sandy is three- month old pregnant! Boy, you should see the happiness in their eyes—a picture of a complete and a happy family. Aside from that, Sodapop is planning to put up a branch of their bookstore here in San Diego. Looks like he and Sandy are meant for business.I really wanted to be with you now, Darry. How I miss my adolescent days. Right after my graduation, I will spend some time with you. You take care of yourself. Until next time.Your younger brother,Ponyboys

Critiquing nursing research Essay

Through the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) code of professional conduct (NMC, 2004) nurses supply high standards of care to patients and clients. One code nurses adhere to is clause 6 which pronounces nurses must maintain professional knowledge and competence, have a responsibility to deliver care based on current evidence, best practice and validated research (NMC, 2004). Validated research involves critiquing and acquiring the skills of synthesis and critical analysis, this enables nurses to distinguish the relationship between theory and practice in nursing (Hendry & Farley 1998). This assignment will critique the research paper â€Å"Patients’ case – notes: look but don’t touch† written by Bebbington, Parkin, James, Chichester and Kubiak (2003) (Appendix 1) using Benton and Comack’s (2000) framework (Appendix 2). This was selected because of the publicity that surrounds hospital acquired infection (Barrett, 2005). TitleThe framework suggests the title should be concise, informative, clearly specify the content and indicate the research approach. The title of the paper is concise; however it gives no information of content or research subject. Moreover the research approach is unidentified consequently the reader is unsure what kind of research has been performed, perhaps an alternate title could have been â€Å"Case notes, do they pass infection: A quantitative study†. This may indicate that the authors have not used a standard format which Benton (2000) states reports should follow; nevertheless the title captured the imagination of the reader and warrants further reading. AuthorsAccording to the framework, the author(s) should possess appropriate academic and professional qualifications and experience; this according to Carter & Porter (2000) establishes integrity. The qualifications and experiences of the authors are not documented. This could indicate the authors have no relevant qualifications or experiences in this field. However further reading identifies where the authors work which could be relevant to their subject, although there is no indication of their occupation. However the reader performed an online search and found the authors have had previous papers published suggesting research experience,  which gives confidence in their abilities. AbstractThe framework states an abstract should be included, should identify the research problem, state the hypotheses, outline the methodology, give details of the sample subjects and report major findings. The abstract is included and is outlined which makes it distinctive and captures the attention. Burns and Grove (2003) states this helps to influence the reader to read the remainder of the report. Additionally a distinctive abstract is beneficial for a rapid summary (Parahoo, 1997). The search question is included and is noticed immediately on the first line. Also incorporated are the methodology, sample subjects and major findings. Yet they do not state the hypothesis. The abstract is clear and precise which gives the reader belief in the capability of the researches. IntroductionThe framework indicates the introduction should clearly identify the problem, include a rationale and state any limitations. The problem is identifiable and the rational is included, nevertheless the reader would have liked to see these presented earlier in the introduction. Dempsey & Dempsey (2000) concur and states the research problem should be identified early and Polit & Beck (2004) add that readers profit from learning the problem immediately. The authors did not indicate any limitations which could suggest inexperience or could question their professional responsibility (Polit & Beck, 2004), however the reader perceives a limitation as being only one study of hospital inpatients notes have been reported thus only one study to compare findings. Literature reviewThe, framework indicates the literature review should be current, identify the underlying theoretical framework, produce a balanced evaluation of material and to look for absent references. The authors’ literature reviews produce twelve references which range from 1967 to 2002, four were classed as outdated (Burns & Grove, 2003) and nine were classed current. Although the reference from 1967 is outdated it is reasonable the authors included it since it is the only research paper found on their particular subject. However this causes the reader to speculate the reason this subject was studied. Because the authors and the reader did not  discover any other literature concerned with the subject this, could indicate that the authors’ literature search was comprehensive which could prove validity of the study. However it is wondered if other researches believed case notes were irrelevant compared to other objects in the hospital or if this is ground breaki ng research. Improvement could have been made by the authors including the search engines they had used as this would allow replication and evaluation of the paper. The literature the authors cited used a quantitative approach as did the authors themselves thus identifying and employing the underlying theoretical framework and giving credibility to the paper. Cutlcliff & Ward (2003) suggests the literature review guides the researcher in discussing the results of the study in terms of agreement or non agreement with other studies, however there is no evidence of evaluation of material that supports or challenges the position being proposed .This suggests the researches appear to have only reported the finding of other studies and not examined the material, which, Peat (2001) states is essential for making decisions about whether or not to change practice on the basis of published report. The outcome is a research paper without critical analysis which Beyea & Nicoll (1998) states is central to the delivery of evidence based patient care. Following duplication of the researches literature search using their keywords the reader could find no important references omitted which leads to the belief that they performed the search methodically. However it was discovered that one important reference in the text (Semmelweis) had been omitted in the reference list. This leads the reader to question if other things may also have been omitted resulting in an unsound paper. The hypothesisThe framework asks if the hypothesis is capable of testing and if the hypothesis is unambiguous. There is no hypothesis in the paper only a research question. Cormack (2000) states that hypothesis can only be stated for studies which predict a relationship between two variables. Polic & Becks (2004) concur and believe hypotheses are predictions of expected outcomes. Since the authors do not state an expectation of the outcome they did not need to incorporate a hypothesis. This could suggest an understanding of research giving the reader faith in their capabilities. Operational definitionsThe framework suggests the terms used in the research problem should be clearly defined. The terms that the author’s employ are clearly defined and can be found effortlessly. Nevertheless they are very limited in respect of the paper and the reader speculated how they found eleven of the twelve references using the keywords since they related to other objects. This could indicate that they decided upon key words prior to performing the literature research, thus limiting their search (Tarling & Crofts, 2002) which questions the validity of the paper. The reader searched Blackwell Synergy using own keywords such as hospital equipment, contamination and bacteria. Many more articles were discovered indicating the authors did not perform an adequate literature search. MethodologyThe framework indicates that the methodology should clearly state the research approach, appropriate to the research problem and if strengths and weaknesses are noted. Although the authors do not identify the study as quantitative the reader understands that it is since it uses findings that can be measured and deals with quantity of results as opposed to interpretation (Munhall, 2001). Additionally the reader believed it is a deductive study since the authors looked at cross infection and objects in the hospital setting and narrowed it down to cross infection and case notes. No strengths or weaknesses were acknowledged, which, Byrne (1998) states is needed so the reader can ascertain if the research is valid. Furthermore the authors state they sampled the spine of the case notes because this is where most hand contact occurs while reading them, however perhaps it could have been suggested sampling the inside since in, my experience, this is where most hand contact occurs. The researches also stated they did not wash their hands until the last set of notes had been tested because it simulates the typical daily handling of notes by HCW’s. However the Department of health (2000) state before and after patient contact hands should be washed, consequently the validity of their approach is questionable. Finally the reader would have liked the researches to explain why the notes were incubated at 37 degrees since an assumption could be made that they are simulating a hospital environment. SubjectsThe framework suggests the subjects should be clearly identified in  the title abstract and methodology. In this paper there are no subjects only case notes. However the reader would have liked there to be a rationale why the authors chose case notes as this according Polit & Beck (2004) gives the reader an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the sampling plan. Sample selectionThe framework suggests the selection approach is congruent to the methodology, clearly stated and if sample size is clearly stated. It appears that convenience sampling was utilised though this is not clear; Burns & Grove (2003) suggest this approach should be avoided however as it provides the opportunity for bias. Since the sample selection method is unclear, it may have been inappropriate, denoting further flaws which affect the remainder of the paper. The sample size is clearly stated however but should have been included in the methodology giving the reader a reference when reading it. Data collectionThe framework asks if the data collection procedures are adequately described. The authors describe the data collection procedure as recorded and analysed. This gives the reader no understanding of how the data was collected, who document it, who interpreted it and where it was stored. This could have implications on the results since there may have been weaknesses in these areas such as the reliability of the collection tools, if the people who recorded and analysis it had training and if there could there be any contamination to the notes. Ethical considerationsThe framework asks if the study involves humans has the study received ethics committee approval, if informed consent was sought, if confidentiality was assured and anonymity guaranteed. Although the study does not directly involve human subject’s research involving personal information relating to human subjects requires the approval of the local ethics committee. (Cormack, 2000)(Royal college of physicians, 1998) The authors make no reference these three ethical codes so it is unknown if the patients agreed to their case notes being tested. This implies no consideration of ethical issues from the authors and questions what other considerations they have overlooked. ResultsAccording to the framework the results should be clearly presented, internally consistent, have sufficient detail to enable the reader to judge, and asks how much confidence can be placed in the finding. The results that the authors present are unclear and misleading since the first two lines state 227/228 case notes contained bacteria; however it continues to inform that most were â€Å"environmental†. The authors use a table to portray their results which Crooks & Davis (1998) suggests is all that is needed to convey information. However the table appears complex, confusing and impossible to understand; therefore the reader would question the internal consistency. In addition since the results are difficult to interpret the reader can not judge the reliability of the findings. Data analysisThe framework states the approach should be appropriate to the type of data collected, statistical analysis should be correctly performed, should be sufficient analysis to decide whether significant differences are not caused by differences in other relevant variables and if the complete information is reported. The authors approach was appropriate to the type of data collected since no other approach would be suitable. Nevertheless the researches do not state how they analysed the statistics so the reader can not judge any limitations. DiscussionThe framework states the discussion should be balanced, drawn on previous research, weaknesses of the study acknowledged and clinical implications discussed. The discussion is not balanced since it focus upon the findings of pathogenic bacteria on case notes and subsequently formulates assumptions about MRSA surviving on case notes without research to back this up. It vaguely draws upon the only previous research and mentions the result, which contradicts their own findings. No failings or limitations of the study or literature review are recognized implying no review or evaluation of the literature, which, according to Benton & Cormack (2000) is central to the research process. One clinical implication is discussed briefly however the reader should remember that the authors have not proved the transmission of bacteria on case notes to HCW’s hands only the potential. ConclusionThe framework asks if the conclusions are supported by the results obtained. The conclusion the authors established was the possibility of transferring bacteria, however since the results are indecipherable it is impossible to determine if the conclusions are supported by the results. RecommendationThe framework states the recommendations should suggest further areas for research, and identify how any weaknesses in the study design could be avoided in future research. There is no suggestion for further research; no weaknesses in the study design mentioned and no recommendations on how issues can be avoided. Therefore the reader believes this paper does not establish contamination from case notes, so is unreliable and lacks validity. Application to practiceThe Department of Health (2005) states Clinical governance is the system through which National Health Service organisations are accountable for continuously improving the quality of their services and safeguarding high standards of care. Elcoat (2000) adds evidence-based practice and evidence-based nursing have very strong positions in the Clinical Governance agenda of quality improvement. Evidence-based practice can be defined as using contemporaneous best evidence ensuring actions are clinically appropriate cost effective and result in positive outcomes for patients (Trinder & Reynolds, 2000). Therefore every healthcare team member has to critique evidence, assess its reliability and application before combining it with their own clinical expertise (DePoy & Gitlin, 1998). Before knowing how to critique I did not understand why nurses had to review articles and I would have taken them on face value, however since critiquing this article I have realized it is a very important part of my practice and taking articles on face value is unsafe practice. The authors discussed some important issues concerning cross infection and as a consequence I have reflected more on cross infection in my clinical area. This leads me to believe that every research paper is of value and has something to give to the reader. However the article will have little impact on my practice since the recommendation of hand washing before and after patient contact is already integrated in my nursing practice. References Barrett , S. P. (2005). What’s new in infection control? Medicine Publishing Company,33(3), i-iii. Retrieved July 5, 2006, from http://www.atyponlink.com/MPC/doi/abs/10.1383/medc.2005.33.3.iBebbington, A., Parkin, P.A., Chichester, L. J., & Kubiak, E. M. (2003). Patients’case notes: look but don’t touch. Journal of Hospital Infection. 55, (4). Benton, D., & Cormack, D. (2000). Reviewing and evaluating the literature. In D. Cormack (Ed.). The research process in nursing (4th ed.). Oxford, UK:Blackwell Science. Beyea. S, Nicoll, L. (1998). Writing an integrative review. Association ofpreoperative Registered Nurses Journal. 67, 4, 877-880. Burns, N., & Grove, S. (2003). Understanding nursing research (3rd ed.). Philadelphia:SaundersByrne, D. W. (1998). Publishing medical research. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams &Wilkins. Carter, D. & Porter, S. (2000). Validity and reliability. In D. Cormack (Ed.), Theresearch process in nursing (4th ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science. Cormack , D. (Ed.). (2000). The research process in nursing (4th ed.). Oxford: BlackwellPublishing. Crookes, P. A., & Davies, S. (Eds.). (2004). Research into practice: essential skills forreading and applying research in nursing and health care. Edinburgh: Baillià ¨reTindall. Cutcliffe, J. R., & Ward, M. (Eds.). (2003). Critiquing nursing research. Wiltshire: M A Healthcare Limited. Dempsey, P., & Dempsey, A. (2000). Understanding nursing research; process, critical appraisal & utilization (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Department of health. (2001). The Epic project: developing national evidence-basedguidelines for preventing healthcare associated infections, phase 1: guidelines forpreventing hospital-acquired infections .Journal of Hospital Infections 47 (suppl): S1-82Department of Health. (2005). Clinical Governance. Retrieved July 12, 2006,fromhttp://www.dh.gov.uk/PolicyAndGuidance/HealthAndSocialCareTopics/ClinicalGovernance/fs/enDePoy, E., & Gitlin, L. N. (1998). Introduction to research: understanding and applying multiple strategies. Philadelphia: MosbyElcoat, D. (2000). Clinical Governance in action: key issues in clinical effectiveness. Professional Nurse.18 (10). Hendry, C., & Farley, A. (1998). Reviewing the literature: a guide for students. Nursing Standard. 12(44). Munhall, P. L. (2001). Nursing research: a qualitative perspective (3rd ed.). Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Nursing & Midwifery council. (2004). Code of professional conduct. London: Nursing & Midwifery council. Peat, J. (2001). Health science research; a handbook of quantitative methods. London: Sage. Parahoo, K. (1997). Nursing research: principles, process and issues. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Trinder, L., & Reynolds, S. (2000). Evidence-based Practice. A Critical Appraisal.

Mirror by lucy grealy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Mirror by lucy grealy - Essay Example Society is an organization where people share common ideas as well as economic and social infrastructure. In a society people should support each other and they also have to maintain a good relationship. Usually, there is a social and emotional bond between the people of a society. But due to the harsh experiences in her life, Grealy forms a different concept of society. She accepts society and the nature of truth in her appearance because she accepts the correlation of her face and herself. She forms a repulsive image of the society where people are not cooperative and supportive. She accepts the fact that her face is ugly but she internalizes this fact and continues to live on. She also understands that the image shown in a mirror or the social mirror is not real. She believes that the society lacks values and people do not take notice of any values. Nature did not give Lucy beauty, which was a popular social demand. This was due to the fact that she had to undergo chemotherapy fro m a very young age. The society in which Grealy existed, failed to show empathy towards her. They were not able to accept Grealy as she was. They never bothered to help her.

Voice-overs and Flashback in Film Noir Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Voice-overs and Flashback in Film Noir - Essay Example One of the stylistic features common to many noir films is the use of extraordinary narrative devices like voice-overs and flashback sequences. These structural elements are included to underscore or otherwise complement thematic elements of the film. Flashbacks too became an effective medium of remembering and recreating the past, another significant activity in psychoanalytic practice. Apart from the psychological dimension, voice-overs could also be used to emphasize the eerie or dark tone of noir films. With the right tone, the narratorial voice could easily intensify the feeling of doom and generally dark settings of the typical noir film. Flashbacks were also useful in creating suspense or experimenting with the narrative flow, allowing for creative use of plot. This paper will seek to further explore the role played by these two specific stylistic devices with reference to three films: Double Indemnity (1944), The Big Sleep (1946) and D.O.A (1950). Double Indemnity has a simil ar opening to D.O.A with the film starting in medias res to reveal a harassed-looking William Neff enter his office room and begin recording his ‘confession’ addressed to Keyes on his Dictaphone.. The confession triggers off the flashback which presumably will explain the events that lead up to the murder that Neff has just confessed to. Interestingly, just a few minutes into this flashback and the confession of Neff also appears as a voice-over superimposed over the past retelling of events. This film employs both devices then, to build-up its atmosphere. The first of the flashbacks serves to describe what can already be seen on the screen, but with added detail like how the room smelled and how the sunlight made the dust visible. More importantly, it allows access to Neff’s mind and his initial impressions of Phyllis Dietrichson. This voice-over and the next also let the audience know the level of engagement with the crime that Neff had at the beginning and how the plan to murder Dietrichson is initiated entirely by his wife. However, the voice-over that marks the return of the narrative from the past back into the present, with Neff still at the Dictaphone, reveals to the audience that Neff too had been thinking about committing murder since as an insurance agent he believes: ‘In this business you can’t sleep for trying to figure out all the tricks they could pull on you.’ Other than tell us about who did what in the murder plot, the voice-overs also give us significant insight into the criminal’s mind – in this case, Walter Neff’s. As said in the introduction, this was a period of great faith in Freudian psychoanalysis and the idea of exploring one’s sub-conscious was quite popular. The Dictaphone-taped ‘confession’ acts as catharsis for expunging guilt. This is especially evident when Walter says that although he knew everything had gone off perfectly he still felt that it co uld all go wrong. He claims to not be able to hear his own footsteps; that he was walking like a ‘dead man.’ This is a classic instance of the psychoanalytic notion of guilt becoming the driving force behind a person’s actions and being the ultimate reason for that person to give himself or herself up. The Big Sleep does not use either voiceovers or flashbacks but there are several silences in the plot where Marlowe is seen tailing or waiting for action to happen, which act as narrative ‘fillers’. Insights into Marlowe’s psyche are not spoken or recounted as clearly as in Double Indemnity but as Marlowe’s character is sketched out to be hard-boiled but honest, what he says in sincerity can be taken by the audience to be true. For instance,

Human sexuality Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Human sexuality - Term Paper Example The results showed that higher self-reported stress in life were associated with low levels of sexual activity and satisfaction and also a decrease in relationship satisfaction (Wright, 2000). According to the study, hypoactive sexual desire in many couples has been seen as only a problem in old couples but also it has been seen in young and middle-aged couples. Sexual difficulties especially low libido has been a susceptible indicator for low relationship satisfaction and other marital problems. Tension created by relationships can be evident earlier than negative ratings of the relationship(Bodenmann, 2013). Theorists and sexual therapists has assumed that stressors may be important factors that involves in decreasing sexual activity in couples and therefore lowering sexual satisfaction. Other studies show that substantial and persistent sexual disorders especially those associated with low sexual desires are linked to major stressors. The study showed that less knowledge is available on the impact of daily hassles that usually originates from outside close relationships on sexual behavior and satisfaction. Human disorders related to sex was also found to be a greater c hallenge on sexual behavior. Sexual desire disorders such as sexual arousal disorder e.g. erectile disorders in men and orgasmic disorder in females were noted to be a significant incremental effect of self-reported stress on sexual problems. Low sexual desires among the many people were also as a result of exhaustion and tiredness. Arguments among the married were also recorded as other causes of low desires in sex (Bodenmann, 2013). The following valuables (stress, sexual activity, sexual satisfaction, and sexual fulfillment as well as individual dyadic coping behaviors) were also assessed and evaluated on weekly basis on diaries and the participant asked to complete diaries on their self- related stress on basis of sexual satisfaction. And it was found that stress

The Basic Universal Laws Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Basic Universal Laws - Essay Example Going to the grocery store or paying for gas can be a difficult task if a person is not entirely fluent in the language.   Attempting to learn new ideas, such as when I began high school in the US, can b,e seemingly impossible at first.   Struggling with concepts that a person knows because of language can be an incredibly trying and frustrating task.   Relearning various aspects of mathematics and chemistry, only in English this time, made me wish I hadn’t moved to the US at times.   The only choice that I had was to persevere and continue making progress little by little. Beyond language, there were many cultural practices that I had to acclimate myself to.   When you grow up in a culture, you simply learn these small customs.   Foreign language classes might attempt to prepare students for various aspects of these cultural differences, though they can in no way totally prepare students for the vast differences in cultures such what exists between Chinese and Ame rican cultures.   There were many times in which I was positive I was using my English language skills appropriately, but because of cultural differences, I was being understood improperly.   These times could be even more frustrating than a simple language barrier.   Often times these episodes could even be embarrassing, though I was able to pretend that I either hadn’t picked up on that aspect of the exchange or simply ignored it.   Unless people have experienced events such as these themselves, they are simply incapable of truly understanding the difficulties of cultural differences.  I did have support from my family.   They helped me with the phrases and concepts that I was having difficulty comprehending.   Eventually, I was able to help my family members with various words and concepts that I was learning and utilizing on my own.   I do know that I would not have been able to adjust to my new life in the US if it had not been for the comfort of having m y family with me.   The external force of my immigration to the US forced many changes upon me, but it did not completely take away everything that I had previously known in my life before.

The Non-Smoking Policy Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 27

The Non-Smoking Policy - Case Study Example These are the people who will be affected by the cost of healthcare that results from smoking. Smoking in the company will affect or harm the non-smokers in the company (second-hand smoking). Non-smokers will have to put have at the risk of smoking-related illness even when they do not smoke. There is a conflict of interest between the employees and the company as employees feel that random testing and smoking ban is a violation of their rights while the employers believe that the policy is for the benefit of the employees. There exists a tension between the rights of the employees and those of the employer. There are no rights that are being ignored, and no one is failing in his or her obligation. The policy is aimed at ensuring a level playing field for all employees (fairness) - to prevent second-hand smoking and first-hand smoking effects. The issue is an ethical issue arising here is whether those employees who are smokers are being discriminated in the workplace. The issue aris ing, in this case, is the cause of the tension between the rights of the employer and the rights of the employee. Â  The possible alternative to the status quo of the affected employees is quit working at Weyco Inc. and seek for a job at the other USA states where measures against smokers are prohibited. The alternative to the status quo of the company is to fire the employees who violate the non-smoking policy for as long as they do not violate the discrimination laws. To achieve a compromise, both the employer and the employees should arrive at a consensus on the way forward. For example, the employer will have to employ a wellness program that will reward those employees who make lifestyle choices that are deemed to be healthy as part of its occupational health and safety.

Hemmingway and O'Connor Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Hemmingway and O'Connor - Research Paper Example Her pleas not to go Florida are ignored by both her son, Bailey and the daughter in-law. Her grandson, John, asks her to stay at home whereas the granddaughter, June asserts that she would not stay behind for a million bucks. This brings out the disrespect that the children have towards their elders. Furthermore, both Bailey and his wife are not respectful towards Bailey’s mother. Bailey, for instance, does not pay attention to what his mother was telling him (O’Connor par 2). In fact, if he had been keen and attentive and had obeyed his mother pleas, he would have saved his family from the ordeal they face later towards the end of the story. Bailey as the head of the family had a responsibility to his family, to protect it and not to lead it towards harm way (Tonic par 4). The daughter-in law appears to be tongue-tied, as she does not say much throughout the story (Tonic par 3). She also had a responsibility to her family to ensure it was safe. The news of Misfits rele ase was good reason enough for her to agree with her mother-in law but instead she chose to ignore her (O’Connor par 2). As the story develops with the family now on the road, there is a depiction of a normal family with its hassles. For instance, Bailey and his wife do not seem to be in such good terms and each one of them seems lost in their own world (Tonic par 6). They do not release how noisy and out of hand their two kids get while playing games in the car. The grandmother intervenes by telling them a story to calm them down. When they stop for a barbecue, only the grandmother seems to engage in conversations with the shop owner (O’Connor par 14). Once they get back on the road, the grandmother suggests that they go visit an old plantation. Bailey refuses to give in to his mother’s suggestion; however, the children become adamant and insist that they visit the old plantation (O’Connor par 13). It is during this moment that the daughter in-law assert s that they should all stay in the car once they get there (O’Connor par 15). However, the family does not get to see the house since they get into an accident that is caused by the grandmother once she realized that the old plantation was in Tennessee and Toombsboro. It is after the accident that the family meets its demise and they are killed by Misfit (O’Connor par 25). In the short story ‘Hills like Elephants’, Hemmingway uses familial roles to set the story outline. In this story, Hemmingway uses a dialogue of a couple to narrate his story. In the conversation, the couple is having an argument on getting rid of the unborn child (Johnston par 3). The dialogue between the man and the girl as well as the body language infers the background as well as attitudes of both the girl and the man pertaining to situation in sight, and their approaches towards each other. From the inception of the narrative, the contentious character of the couple’s dialogu e designates unease and resentment. The conversation is a refinement of the differences amid stereotypical female and male relationship roles. For example, the girl draws elicits the analogy with ‘white elephants’, whereas the hyper-rational male immediately refutes it, disbanding the poetry bit into objective realism with ‘ I’ve never seen one(Hemmingway par ).’ The girl also asks his approval to order a beer. All through the story, she is distant; the man is rational. While the man tries to frame

China Country Profile Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

China Country Profile - Term Paper Example China’s political system is very much in the hands of bureaucrats and government officials. One has to rely on them to get business done- this is due to the tradition of ‘guanxi’ (Tian n.d) which is about maintaining good relations with the Chinese. In China, it is not the law that matters but the people in power and their interpretation of the law. Due to this very practice, free trade agreements and ease of starting business in China still rests in the hands of bureaucrats and how well one maintains terms with them. Due to government interferences, tariff rates are high but recently, due to globalization, tariff rates have been lowered down in China. Strengthening the ‘reform’ policy (Tian n.d), rates of applicable taxes have also been reduced which has created a favorable environment for new business in China. Economically, China is growing at a rocketing speed and is soon coveted to be the world’s biggest economy beating the US. The average income of Chinese is increasing which signals growth in the demand of consumables and house-hold products. Due to housing subsidies introduced, real estate sector is also booming in China. Socially, China is a very business-favorable nation. Its population reduces doubts of shortage of customers and target markets. Literacy rate is also high in China which means upscale products can easily be produced and marketed. Chinese people prefer products and items carrying the first-mover advantage with them. Urban population in China emphasizes on brand while the rural population is more inclined towards price and quality of products. Due to fast paced urbanization, trend of stylish and high-priced products has picked up in China. It is also a proven fact that due to corruption in China, people tend to report lower income levels than what they actually possess (Tian n.d). Hence, the actual income levels are higher than expected in China thereby highlighting greater disposable income and spending power. China

Ap European History Chapter Essay Example for Free

Ap European History Chapter Essay The chief minister to King Henry VIII, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey and Sir Thomas More, Wolsey’s successor, guided the opposition to Protestantism. The king earned the title â€Å"Defender of the Faith† by protecting the 7 sacraments against Luther’s attacks. Thomas More wrote Response to Luther in 1523. The King’s Affair The King’s marriage kick started the English Reformation. Catherine Aragon would not produce a male heir for King Henry VIII, only Mary, and Henry wanted a divorce. Catherine had first been the wife of Henry’s brother, Arthur, but he died, so Henry inherited Catherine. They were married in 1509 with a special dispensation from Pope Julius II himself. By the time of his divorce conflict, Henry was in love with Anne Boleyn, one of Catherine’s ladies-in-waiting. He wanted to wed Anne instead of Catherine. However, he could not get a divorce because Pope Clement VII was a prisoner of Charles V. Cardinal Wolsey, who was in charge of securing and annulment, was dismissed in shame when he failed to do so. Thomas Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell, both of whom harbored Lutheran sympathies then became Henry’s most trusted advisors. They wanted to create an English church of which the King would be the head. This allowed Henry to annul his own marriage. The â€Å"Reformation Parliament† In 1529, Parliament convened for a seven-year session. It was called the â€Å"Reformation Parliament†. During this period, it passed legislation that placed reins on the clergy. In 1531, the Convocation recognized that the King was the head of the Church. The Parliament published grievances against the Church, ranging from indifference to the laity to too many religious holidays. Parliament also passed Submission of the Clergy which brought canon law under royal control, and the clergy into royal jurisdiction. In 1533, Henry wed Boleyn and Parliament made the king the highest court of appeal for citizens. Also in 1533, Cranmer led the Convocation to annul Henry’s marriage to Catherine. In 1534, Parliament ended all payments by the laity and clergy to Rome and gave Henry power over ecclesiastical appointments. The Act of Succession made Anne Boleyn’s children legitimate. The Act of Supremacy made Henry the only head in earth of the Church of England. When Thomas More and John Fischer refused to recognize the Act of Succession and the Act of Supremacy, Henry had them executed to prove a point. In 1536 and 1538, Parliament dissolved England’s monasteries and nunneries. Wives of Henry VIII In 1536, Anne Boleyn was executed for treason and adultery, and her daughter Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Jane Seymour died in 1537, after giving birth to Edward. On the advice of Cromwell, he wed Anne of Cleves. The marriage was annulled by Parliament and Cromwell was executed. Catherine Howard, the fifth wife, was killed for adultery in 1542. Catherine Parr lived. The King’s Religious Conservatism Henry remained decidedly conservative in his religious beliefs. With the Ten Articles of 1536, he made mild confessions to Protestant tenets and maintained Catholic Doctrine. He forbade the clergy to marry or have concubines. Henry wrote the Six Articles of 1539 to strike at Protestant views. They reaffirmed transubstantiation, denied the Eucharistic cup to the laity, declared celibate vows inviolable, provided for private masses, and ordered the continuation of oral confession. Although William Tyndale’s translation was mandated in Parishes, England had to wait till Henry’s death until it could declare itself a Protestant country. The Protestant Reformation under Edward VI Edward was ten when his father died. During this reign, England fully enacted the Protestant Reformation. Edward VI and Somerset responded directly to John Calvin. During Somerset’s regency, Henry’s Six Articles and laws against heresy were fully repealed. Clerical marriage and communion with cup were sanctioned. In 1547, places where endowed masses had traditionally been said for the dead were dissolved. Images and altars were removed from churches in 1550. After Charles V’s victory over the German princes in 1547, German Protestant leaders fled to England for refuge. These people helped to guide the Reformation in England. The Second Act of Uniformity imposed a revised Book of Common Prayer on all churches. Thomas Cranmer’s 42 article confession of faith set forth moderate Protestant doctrine. It taught justification by faith and the supremacy of the Holy Scripture, denied transubstantiation, and recognized only two of the seven sacraments. All of the changes were short-lived however. In 1553, Mary I took Edward’s throne after his death and proceeded to revert back to Catholic doctrine and practice with a single-mindedness rivaling only that of her father’s. It was not until Anne Boleyn’s daughter’s reign that lasting religious settlement was worked out in England. Catholic Reform and the Counter-Reformation The Protestant Reformation was not a surprise. There were internal criticisms and ideas of reform within the Church already even before the Counter-Reformation in reaction to Protestant success. Sources of Catholic Reform Popes preferred â€Å"Men are to be changed by, not to change, religion. † – Superior General of the Hermits of Saint Augustine, instead of changing laws and institutions of the Church. Although the Church denounced it, there were still orders that pushed for reform: Theatines (1524) – Groomed the devout and reform minded leaders at the higher levels of the Church hierarchy. One of the cofounders of this order was Bishop Gian Pietro Carafa, who became Pope Paul IV. Capuchins (Recognized in 1528) – Sought to return to the ascetic and charitable ideals of Saint Francis and became popular among ordinary folks, who were their audience. Somaschi (mid-1520s) and Barnabites (1530) – Directed their efforts at repairing the moral, spiritual, and physical damage done to people in war-torn areas of Italy. For Women: Ursulines (1535) – Established convents in Italy and France for the religious education of girls from all social classes and became very influential. Oratorians (Recognized in 1575) – An elite group of secular clerics who devoted themselves to the promotion of religious literature and church music – One member was Giovanni Perluigi da Palestrina (1526 – 1594). In addition to these lay and clerical movements, Spanish mystics Saint Teresa of Avila (1515 – 1582) and Saint John of the Cross (1542 – 1591) popularized the mystical piety of medieval monasticism. Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuits The most successful reform group of the Counter-Reformation was the Society of Jesus, or the Jesuits (Recognized by the church in 1540, began in 1530s). It grew so much that people went on missions to convert other who lived in Asia, the Americas and even Africa. The founder of Jesuits, Ignatius of Loyola, was a hero. His legs were injured during a battle with the French. He swore to become a religious person if he were to survive his injuries. While injured, he had a revelation, and after his recuperation, he began to preach about his revelations. He wrote Spiritual Exercises. He declared that people could shape their own behaviors through self-discipline and practice. In Jesuits eyes, Protestant dissenters were considered as disobedient of the Church authority, and by religious innovation. However, Ignatius of Loyola taught that people should submit to the authority of the Church and spiritual direction. The Council of Trent (1545 – 1563) The success of the Reformation and the insistence of Charles V caused Pope Paul to call for a general council of the church to reassert church doctrine. Caspar Contarini headed the council: he was a leading liberal theologian. However, even Contarini seemed blunt in his report by saying that the simony and the fiscal practices of the Roman Curia were the loss of Church esteem. The report was so critical that Paul IV could not suppress its distribution. Protestants printed and reprinted it to assert control over even the Papacy. The Council of Trent itself met in the following time periods: 1545 – 1547, 1551 – 1552, and 1562 – 1563, a period that spanned the careers of three popes. The laity was not permitted to share in the council’s decisions. The Council’s most important decisions were concerning the internal church discipline. It curtailed the sales of Church offices and other Church goods. Those who resided in Rome instead of the dioceses were forced to move their appointed seats of power. Trent oversaw that bishops could effectively enforce religious discipline and that bishops were subjected to rules that required them to be visible in regular preaching and conduct regular visitations. Parish priests were also to neatly dress, be better educated, strictly celibate, and active among parishioners. A seminary was also constructed in each diocese. The Council of Trent reaffirmed the following: Traditional Scholastic Education of the Clergy The role of good works in salvation The authority of tradition The seven sacraments Transubstantiation The withholding of the Eucharistic cup from the laity Clerical celibacy The reality of purgatory The veneration of saints, relics and sacred images The granting of letters of indulgences The Church solved medieval Scholastic quarrels in favor of the ideologies of Thomas Aquinas, who asserted his authority in the Church. Thereafter, the church offered its strongest resistance to groups like the Jansenists, who strongly endorsed the medieval Augustinian tradition, a source of alternative Catholic, as well as many Protestant, doctrines. Rulers were initially afraid that their lands were beginning to be taken over by papal authority, until the pope reassured them that the orders were by his decree only. The Social Significance of the Reformation in Western Europe Lutheran, Zwinglian, and Calvinists often worked within the framework of reigning political power. This is because the founders themselves believed that they were not on Earth to change the political power, but only to reform religion. They remained highly sensitive to what was politically and socially possible in their age. Some scholars and historians believe that they encouraged acceptance of the sociopolitical status quo of their time. The Revolution in Religious Practices and Institutions The Reformation may have been politically conservative, but by the end of the 16th century, it had brought about radical changes in traditional religious practices and institutions in those lands where it succeeded. Religion in Fifteenth-Century Life Six to eight percent of the population in cities that later turned Protestant was the clergy and the religious, and they exercised political as well as spiritual power. They legislated, taxed, tried cases in special church courts, and they enforced their laws with threats of excommunication. The Church calendar regulated daily life. About one third of the year was given over to some kind of religious observance or celebration. There were frequent period of fasting. Monasteries, especially nunneries, were extremely prominent and influential institutions. The children of society’s most wealthy and powerful citizens resided there. On the streets, friars begged for alms from passerby. In Church, the mass and liturgy were read in Latin. Images of saints were regularly displayed, and on certain holidays their relics were paraded about and venerated. Local religious shrines enjoyed booming business. Pilgrims gathered there for either cures for illnesses, diversion, or even entertainment. Several times during the year, special preachers would come to sell indulgences. Many clergy walked the streets with concubines, even though there were banned from marriage. They only had to pay a small penitent to the Church for toleration. People everywhere could be heard complaining about the clergy’s exemption from taxation and from the civil criminal code. They also grumbled about having to support church offices whose occupants actually lived and worked elsewhere. Townspeople thought that education should be more secular. Religion in Sixteenth-Century Life Although few changes to social and political institutions were clear, the Reformation had firmly taken root in these cities. Overall numbers of the clergy decreased by about two thirds and the number of religious holidays fell by around one third. Places of religious seclusion were almost gone; the remaining ones were transformed into places for the sick and poor or places for education. Churches, which also had been reduced in number by about one third, conducted worship in the vernacular. The laity observed no obligatory fasts. Indulgence preachers no longer appeared. Local shrines were closed down. People venerating saints, relics and images were subject to fines and punishment. Copies or even excerpts of Luther’s translation of the New Testament were common in every household, and even the clergy began to meditate on them. The clergy were allowed to marry, and most did. They paid taxes and were punished in civil courts. Domestic moral life was regulated by committees of about equal numbers of laity and clergy: secular magistrates had the last word in these. Whereas ? of Europe could be considered Protestant in the 16th Century, only about one-fifth was Protestant in the mid-17th Century. The Reformation and Education A great cultural achievement was the Reformation’s implementation of many of the educational reforms of humanism in the Protestant schools and universities. Protestant reformers shared with humanists a common opposition to scholasticism and a belief in unity of wisdom, eloquence, and action. The humanist program of studies was an appropriate tool for the elaboration of Protestant doctrine, which remained ascendant in the Counter-Reformation. The Catholic counter-reformers acknowledged the close connections between the Reformation and the humanism. Ignatius of Loyola observed that new learning was embraced by the Protestants. In his Spiritual Exercises, he said that when the Bible was read directly, it be read under the authority of: Thomas Aquinas, Peter Lombard, and Bonaventure. These people had the clearest understanding, and should guide the study of the Scriptures. In August 1518, Philip Melanchthon (1497 – 1560), arrived at the University of Wittenburg, first implemented the curricular reforms on the humanist model. In his inaugural address, On Improving the Studies of the Young, he presented himself as a defender of the classical studies against â€Å"barbarians who practice barbarous arts†. Melanchthon urged the study of history, poetry and other humanist disciplines. Together, Luther and Melanchthon restructured the University of Wittenburg’s curriculum. Commentaries on Lombard’s Sentences were dropped, as was canon law. Straightforward historical study replaced the old Scholastic lectures on Aristotle. Students read from primary sources, not trusted commentators. New chairs of Greek and Hebrew were created. Luther and Melanchthon also pressed for universal compulsory education so that both boys and girls could get educated in the vernacular. In Geneva, John Calvin and Theodore Beza created the Genevan Academy, which later became the University of Geneva. It was created primarily for Calvinist Ministers, and pursued ideals similar to those set forth by Luther and Melanchthon. Because of the spread of Protestantism from this Academy, a working knowledge of Greek and Hebrew became commonplace in educated circles in the 16th and 17th Centuries. Some people believed that Protestantism was taking over humanism. Erasmus thought that the Reformation was a threat to the liberal arts and good learning. Sebastian Franck pointed out that there were parallels between Luther and Zwingli’s debates and the debate over the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin. In spite of these clashes, Humanist culture was indebted to the Reformation. Protestant endorsement of the humanist program remained significant to Humanism even after the Reformation. Protestant schools consolidated and preserved humanist culture for the modern world. In these Protestant schools, the studia humanitatis took hold. The Reformation and the Changing Role of Women Protestant reformers took a positive stand on clerical marriage and opposed monasticism and celibacy. They opposed the popular anti-woman and anti-marriage literature of the Medieval Period. They praised woman in her own right, but especially in her role as a housewife and mother. Although marriage laws gave women greater security, they were still subjects to their husbands. Protestant arguments for marriage included relief of sexual frustration and as a remedy for fornication. Many reformers acknowledged the power of women and could not imagine a world without them. Luther himself wrote that â€Å"Men cannot do without women. † John Calvin stated at the death of his wife that â€Å"I have been bereaved of the best companion of my life. † Such tributes were used to overcome the Catholic Church’s belief that marriage may distract the clergy. Protestants also stressed as no religious movement before them had, the sacredness of marriage and the family life. This attitude created a more respectful relationship between husband and wife and family. The Protestants also believed that women had equal rights to divorce and remarry in good conscience. The reformers were more willing to permit divorce and remarriage on grounds of adultery and abandonment than were the secular magistrates. These magistrates thought that liberal divorce laws would lead to social reform. Women in nunneries wrote that their overseeing by men was just as abusive as their married life. Women in higher classes found a religious component to their greater freedom in life. They believed that the cloister provided an interesting and independent way of life that their secular lives could not provide. Protestants encouraged the education of girls in the vernacular because they wanted women to become pious housewives. Through their education, women found that they were equal to men in the eyes of God. Education also gave women a role as independent authors of the Reformation. These advances were important in the steps toward the emancipation of women completely. Family Life in Early Modern Europe Changes in the timing and the duration of marriage, in family size, and in infant and child care suggest that family life was under a variety of social and economic pressures in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Reformation was a factor in these changes, but not the only or even the major one. Families have certain force and logic of their own, regardless of where they are and when they are. Differences in people lay in the ways different cultures and religions infuse family life with values and influence the behavior of family members. Later Marriages Between 1500 and 1800, men and women in Western Europe and England married at later ages. Men tended to in their mid to late-twenties and women in their mid-twenties. The Church sanctioned previously that the age for legal marriage was 14 for men and 12 for women. This might have occurred among the royalty and nobility. After the Reformation, the church required both parental agreement and public vows before a marriage could be recognized as legal. Late marriage in the West reflected the difficulty of being independent for the bachelor period. The difficulty arose because of the population growth during the 15th and 16th centuries (population was recovered from the Black Death). Larger families meant more heirs and a greater division of resources. In German and Scandinavian countries, inheritance would be divided among all male children. People were taking longer to prepare themselves for marriage than before. One in five women never married, and 15% were unmarried widows. A later marriage meant one of shorter duration. Women who bore children for the first time at later ages had a higher mortality than those who bore children at earlier ages. Because of this delayed marriage system, there was increased premarital fornication, and in turn, many illegitimate children were produced. Arranged Marriages Many marriages were arranged in the sense that parents would meet the parents of the spouse before conducting the ceremony. By the fifteenth century, it was not uncommon for bride and groom to have previously known each other, or even have had a previous relationship. Emotional feeling for one another was respected by the parents. Parents did not force marriages, and children could say â€Å"No†. A forced marriage was invalid and unwanted marriages would not last. Family Size The average husband and wife had eight children, and ? of them died by their teens, one third by the age of five. Families lived with their in-laws, servants, laborers and boarders. This was a nuclear family. Birth Control Ever since the beginning of mankind, there have been attempts to control child birth. The church’s banning of male withdrawal before ejaculation is a sign that it had been attempted before. Thomas Aquinas believed that the natural end of coitus was the creation of a child. Wet Nursing The church allied itself with physicians on the matter of condemning women who hired wet nurses. The practice however, was popular among high-class women. Children who were wet nursed usually had a higher mortality rate. To husband’s, a nursing wife was a reluctant lover. Many women prolonged nursing in order to delay a pregnancy. However, noblemen did not like this because they needed a male heir. This jeopardized the patrimony, and they supported wet nursing. Loving Families? Between the ages of eight and thirteen, children were sent out to apprenticeships, schools, or into employment. Widowers and widows married again within a few months of their spouses’ deaths, and marriage with great difference between age limited affection. Literary Imagination in Transition Alongside the political and cultural changes brought about by the new religious systems of the Reformation, medieval outlooks and values continued into the 17th century. However, the literary figures of the post-Reformation period had elements of both old and new styles. Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra: Rejection of Idealism Spanish literature of the 16th and 17th centuries reflects the peculiar religious and political history of Spain in this period. Traditional Catholicism was a major part of Spanish life. Since the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, the church received the support of reigning political power. The power of the church and the Inquisition did not allow for Protestantism to gain room in Spain. The piety of rulers also influenced Spanish rulers. The third influence was the preoccupation with medieval chivalric virtues, in particular, questions of honor and loyalty. Spanish literature remained more Catholic and medieval than that of England and France, where two Protestant movements occurred. Lope de Vega and Pedro Calderon, two of the period’s greatest writers, became priests. Cervantes only had a little bit of formal education. He educated himself by wide reading in popular literature and immersion in the â€Å"School of Life. † In prison, in 1603, he began to write Don Quixote. The first part of Don Quixote appeared in 1605. This work was written to satirize the chivalric romances then popular in Spain. Cervantes presents Don Quixote as an unstable middle class man. By reading too many chivalric romances, he believed he was an aspiring knight who had to prove himself through brave deeds. Don Quixote’s foil – Sancho Panza, a clever, worldly peasant who serves as Quixote’s squire – watches with bemused skepticism as his lord battles with a windmill, which he mistakes for a dragon. At the end, Quixote comes to his senses after a well-meaning friend defeats him â€Å"in battle† as a â€Å"knight†. Quixote returns to his village as a defeated man to die a brokenhearted old man’s death. Throughout the novel, Cervantes juxtaposes the realism of Panza with the religious idealism of Quixote. The reader however, perceives that Cervantes loved both characters equally. William Shakespeare: Dramatist of the Age

Explaining the role of effective communication Essay Example for Free

Explaining the role of effective communication Essay There are wide ranges of ways that communication can take place for example one to one conversations, group conversations. This can either be informal or formal depending on the individual’s outcome. An example of effective communication that can take place in a health and social care setting is a hospital, for example a nurse and her colleague are talking about how much they enjoy their jobs, and this is a form of effective communication. One- To –One communication – A one to one happens when a person speaks to a individual, or writes to the individual to form effective communication. In a one to one communication, it is always effective as both of the people in the one to one work together effectively and interacts well, as both individuals are relaxed and are listening to each other, in a result the communication works effectively and both parties leave with a resolved matter and everything is positive. One to one communication can be formal or informal. An formal one to one communication can take place in a GP, where the patient is discussing their personal problem with the Doctor and the doctor is helping the individual out with their problem, this is part of effective communication as the one to one interacting is working effectively. An informal one to one communication, can take place in a health and social care setting, where two colleagues are on their lunch break and are discussing about how their day has gone so far and etc. , this is a part of effective communication as both parties are interacting effectively. Group communication In a group communication, there is often more going on as it is a wide range of people within the group. During the group communication, each individual will try and get their points and ideas across to the people within the group and the rest will listen and be considerate towards the person speaking. That is a way of effective group communication, as the interacting between the group is working well and effectively. A group communication can be a great benefit, as it’s easier to make decisions and problem solving a ituation as you have various people giving different views and feedback to a matter, and that’s a great way of effective communication. A group communication can include multi- professional working, multi-agency, which happens with professionals and people using services. A multi-professional working involves numerous professionals working together in order to meet the needs of an individual. This will include doctor, police, and social worker to meet the needs of a young adult in a bad situation. Multi-agency is when different organisations work together effectively to the best possible service to families, children and young people. Formal communication Formal communication is a form of communication used by professional to communicate with clients and individuals. This form of communication is important because it shows the professional is showing professionalism within the work their doing to deliver the best possible care for the individual as well as the communication working effectively. An example of formal communication can be, ‘ good morning Sir/Mrs, this shows respect towards the individual. It is important not to use jargon or slang whilst communication formally, because you will come across as you’re not serious about your work, and also the client my not be pleased, also jargon can be a barrier because it can affect the communication between the client and professional due to not understand the technical words. Informal communication Informal communication is a casual exchange or letter that doesnt follow to all of the rules of formal communication. Its like saying hey instead of hello and also writing to your friend and talking about personal things. These are things youd never do in a business environment because it can be considered as formal communication. Informal communication is good way of communication as it can make a individual more relaxed and effective as it’s more easier and complex for the person to interact, as they don’t have to worry about being proper and correct. Interpersonal interaction Interpersonal interaction is how people relate towards each other in a verbal nteraction or non-verbal interaction. Verbal interactions include speech, tone of somebody’s voice, listening and language. Non-verbal interactions include a person’s body language and the way they express it for example their posture, facial expression and their proximity. Interpersonal communication can take place in a health and social care setting, for example: at a care home, there is a new career and she does not s peak English properly, so therefore it is hard for her to interact with the residents, which makes this is a language barrier. P2 – Argyle’s Theory of the Communication Cycle Michael Argyle is a social psychologist who developed theories about interpersonal interaction and human communication. He carried out experimental theories of non-verbal and verbal communication to develop and test he’s theoretical ideas. He has a communication cycle which explains and predicts how communication can occur in a one to one situation. 1. An idea occurs. A resident wants to go to the library and is trying to convince her carer. 2. Message coded. She talks to her carer about the books she used to read and how much she misses reading them. 3. Message sent. The carer says to the resident, ‘what was your favourite book’ this shows the message is sent and the carer understands what the resident is talking about. 4. Message received. Now the carer know what the resident’s favourite book is the resident is happy and is smiling. 5. Message decoded. Then the carer says to her resident would you like me to take you to the library so we can have a look if they have your favourite book and other books your interested in? 6. Message understood. Here the resident is happy and so is the carer because now they both understand each and the communication between the two has worked effectively. Bruce Tuckman defined a model of group development based around numerous stages, sequences or group activity. Tuckman suggested that these stages should happen in order for effective communication to occur in the groups interaction as well as the four stages being completely different. Forming – it is the start of the year and new infants have started the nursery, they tend to be shy and well reserved as they are not used to each other. Storming – as they start to settle in for about a month, they because more comfortable and relaxed with each other, in some cases this might not happen, someone would want to be dominant out of the bunch and this may cause conflict between the infants. Norming – in this stage everyone had built a strong bond between each other, and is working together well. Performing – in this final result the infants become mature and tend to realise that working together effectively can be a positive thing. M1 – Assess the role of effective communication and interpersonal interaction in health and social care with reference to theories of communication. The roles of effective communication in a health and social care setting, is to ensure that if communication with a resident, you must make sure to talk clearly and slowly, face to face make sure the person understands you and you’ve got your message across in the right way, in order for the communication to work effectively. The types of reference to communication are sign language, makaton and braille. These are part of effective communication as they are used by people with a hearing or blind impairment and leaning difficulties in order for them to communicate with others around them. Effective communication is a two-way process in which a person tries to understand the viewpoint of the other person. Communication is a cycle because when two people communicate they will need to make sure that they got their ideas across towards each other and they are understood. There are also barriers that can occur in a communication due the individual’s circumstance, for example: a person using slang, jargon o complex technical terminology can be heard, but their message may not be understood. Scenario I’m going to give a scenario between doctor and a patient, showing communication working effectively. Nurse : did you rest well last night Mrs Jones? Patient: yes I did nurse, I’m feeling slight better. Nurse: that’s a great improvement then, I’m glad you are. Patient: thank you very much nurse. Nurse: I am always here to help my dear. This is a very good way of effective communication, as the nurse and patient are interacting well and both parties are happy as they have understood each other. References (http://www. businessdictionary. com/definition/informal-communication. html) (http://wiki. answers. com/Q/What_is_formal_communication_in_business_organization)

Project Report On Petroleum Industry Commerce Essay

Project Report On Petroleum Industry Commerce Essay The MBA programmed provides student with a fundamental knowledge of business and organizational functions and activities as well as an exposure to strategic thinking of management. As a part of the curriculum we have prepared a comprehensive project report on petroleum industry. The theoretical knowledge is used only when are apply in our practical study. This report contains a brief about the petroleum industry playing a vital role in the growth of Indian economy. The whole project was accomplished in very systematic manner starting from collection of information through visiting various websites, books, magazines etc and than analyses it in a proper and suitable way. This report aims to provide information regarding the current position of petroleum industry in India. Its growth, challenges and issues in highly competitive market by adopting liberalization and globalization polices which are affecting the Indian economy particularly in petroleum sector. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to thank all the people who have helped us for making this project possible. Firstly we would like to appreciate the tradition of our institute, J.H.P.C.M.T which encourages such activities. We would also like to thank Dr. M.R.Parekh director of J.H.PATEL COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY for providing help whenever required. We grateful acknowledgments the value guidance and useful suggestion offered by our faculty guide Miss Jenita Patel. Finally we also thankful all our friends to helped us directly and indirectly in our project. We have also devoted with our best possible effort to complete the project. Declaration We Thakkar Nikita, Makwana Snehal hereby declare that the COMPREHENSIVE PROJECT REPORT entitled Petroleum Industry in is a result of our own work and our indebtedness to other work publications, references, if any, have been duly acknowledged. Place: (Signature) Date: (Name of Student) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The project titled as Petroleum Industry has been undertaken with an objective of analyzing the economic growth in the india market its role for the development of the country. It represents Indias energy needs and is the most valuable public as well as private enterprise. As a collective result of private sector and public sector refinery investments in the recentpast, India will become known by 2012 as Asias largest refined product exporter, surpassing Singapore. India will stay one of Asias two largest refined product exporters for the anticipated future. India is suddenly become a global petroleum producing center because of having increasing the depth of product flows and strengthening supply chains especially clean transport fuels and for high-end industrial product. It also have far-reaching implications for regional product markets. The business of Indias large scale export oriented refining sector marks the increase of rate of a basic shift in the design of global refining in which growing economies increasingly look to production hubs in Asia and the Middle East to supply incremental refined product demand. Growth and Evolution of Petroleum Industry in India The petroleum industry is include the global processes of extraction, exploration, refining, transporting (often by pipelines and oil tankers), and marketing petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are gasoline (petrol) and fuel oil. Petroleum (oil) is also the raw material for many chemical products, including solvents, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, fertilizers, and plastics. The origin of the Indian oil gas industry can be traced back to the late 19th century, when oil was first struck at Digboi in Assam in 1889.In view of the significance of the gas oil sector for overall economic growth, the Government of India announced in1954 that petroleum would be the core sector industry. 1954, petroleum exploration production activity was controlled by the government-owned National Oil Companies (NOCs), namely Oil India Private Ltd (OIL) and Oil Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC).Indias refining capacity has more than trebled in the last 13 years. Reliance Industry is the first refinery industry in Jamnagar in 1999, India has an installed capacity of around 193.5 million tpa in April, 2011. The growth is likely to continue with refining capacities expected to touch 255 million tpa by 2012-13 and 302 million tpa by 2017-18, with a slew of projects announced by both the private and public sector. Today, private sector accounts for 76.5 million tpa (around 39.5 per cent) and public sector oil companies account for close to 117 million tpa (around 60.5 per cent). There has been a healthy growth in Indias petroleum refining capacity in the last five years, is as described by the given table below:- Domestic crude oil production [million tpa] 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 (Provisional) Total consumption 113.2 120.7 128.9 133.6 138.2 Products from indigenous crude 26.6 28.4 28.2 27.0 27.2 Indigenous crude processing 28.3 30.2 30.0 28.8 28.9 Products from fractionators 4.2 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.4 Total indigenous production 30.8 32.4 32.3 31.2 31.6 Import dependence (%) 72.8 73.2 75.0 76.7 77.2 Self-sufficiency (%) 27.2 27.0 25.0 23.3 22.8 The capacity utilization of Indian refiners for the last few years is described in the table. Indian refiners have also operated at higher operating rates or capacity utilization compared to their regional/global peers implying efficiency in operations. But, import of Indias refining industry is growing, as the domestic crude oil production is stable at around 30 million tpa for the last few years. Generally, GDP growth rates and petroleum product consumption are linked. But, in our case, factors like availability of better roads, more fuel efficient vehicles, improvements in mass urban transport modes and increased availability of natural gas for industrial sector contributed to more moderate growth in recent times. Indian refineries are clocking higher Gross Refining Margins compared to regional benchmarks a clear sign for competitiveness in refining operations. If all the planned projects materialize, India will have an exportable surplus petroleum product of around 100 million tpa by 2012 and 140 million. Product profile This section provides a brief description of the technology and production process. An understanding of these issues is critical as it helps understand industry structure. Crude oil is a liquid mixture of hydrocarbons chemical compounds consisting roughly of six parts of carbon and one of hydrogen, both of which are fuels; it generally also carries small quantities of salts sulphur, oxygen, metals and nitrogen. The principal products obtained from the crude oil are:- Petrol:- Petrol is used to fuel internal combustion engines, mainly vehicular. It is early use as a killer of lice and their eggs has completely disappeared. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG):- LPG is mostly a combination of propane and butane. It is heavier than air, and liquefies under pressure. It is used as a household cooking fuel, vehicular fuel and refrigerant; 4 million vehicles are estimated to be powered by LPG in the world. Kerosene:- Kerosene is also known as paraffin, is used as an illuminant and cooking fuel in India and other poor countries, and as a space heating fuel in industrial countries. Jet fuel:- It is used in jet planes, is closely akin to kerosene. Naphtha:- Naphtha is used to make additives for high-octane petrol, and to make polymeric plastics and urea, a nitrogenous fertilizer. Lubricating oil:- It is consists of greases and viscous oils used to lubricate moving parts in automobiles, industry, railway engines and carriages and marine engines. Petroleum coke:- It is mostly used as fuel, but is also used to make dry cell batteries and electrodes. High-speed diesel oil:- It is used in engines running at 750 revolutions per minute (rpm) or more. It is mostly used in diesel-powered vehicles. Light diesel:- It is used in the diesel engines running at lower speed mainly irrigation pumps and generation sets. Furnace oil:- It is made by diluting residual fuel oil from refining with middle distillates such as diesel oil. It is used in bunkers, boilers, furnaces, heaters, or as fertilizer feedstock. Demand determination of the Industry Petroleum industry in the country has undergone major transformation in the past several years. The country is now net exporter of petroleum products. Globalization of Indian economy along with high international oil prices which are a pass-through in the bulk sector has induced improvement in energy efficiency and shift of demand from liquid to natural gas (LNG). Further, improvement in road infrastructure and better vehicles has had a sobering effect on the demand for road transportation fuels. Low demand in transport fuels like HSD and MS is also due to factors like expansion of city gas distribution networks i.e. CNG. Demand determination factors:- The Demand determination factors are based on mainly two approaches. Top-down Approach and Bottom-up Approach. Top-down Approach: Overall energy requirements with share of different fuels in the primary commercial energy basket by linking GDP with energy elasticity. Bottom-up Approach: End use approach considering the impact of different parameters. While assessing the requirements factors like impact of Metro rail, CNG expansion, impact of high oil prices, conservation/efficiency improvement issues, aviation policy of the Government, Railways freight policy, growth of passenger and cargo traffic, fleet expansion plan of airlines, National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) road construction projects, construction of freight corridor, electrification plans of railway tracks vehicle population growth, impact of gas, technological improvements in engine designs, improved fuel efficiency, impact of auto LPG etc. have been measured. The demand of gas is continues to be influenced by the cost economics vis-à  -vis alternative fuels pertaining to each of the end use sectors in India. The power and fertilizer is also the dynamics of these sectors. Currently the consumption of natural gas is shared by the fertilizer and power sector to the tune of 29% and 40% respectively. The power sector is one of the continuous major consumer of natural gas. There has set target of 70,000 generation s forecasted by he ministry of power for the next 5 year period ending 2012. The industry like Petrochemicals/Refineries and Internal Consumption sectors are estimates that the annual economic growth rate of about 7%. Similarly, the iron/steel sector is also estimates same rate for economic growth. Currently the demand for petroleum product is 131.8 MMT in 2011-12 which will increased by 160.2 in 2016-17. The demand for petroleum product is also depend on the availability of the different products like petrol diesel kerosene naphtha etc. Their prices are the main factor of determining demand of these products. The petroleum refineries must considered the price parity and export parity which considered the change in price of petroleum products which depend on the past experience. Players in the Industry The various competitors are available in the petroleum industry which including the government and private sector. most of the petroleum companies are huge operations and with billion dollar balance sheet. The oil and gas production and distribution is dominated by government owned companies which are heavily regulated excepting for Reliance Industries. After liberalizing the operations of the companies like Indian Oil Corporation Ltd (IOCL), Hindustan Petroleum Corp. Ltd (HPCL) and Bharat Petroleum Corp. Ltd (BPCL) run billions of   dollars in losses as they are forced to sell petroleum products at below their cost. The polices of government are mostly informal compensating these companies through money transfers and bonds. some government companies like OIL India, ONGC and GAIL which operates in the production and have to bear less of the subsidy burden have grown and performed very well. In the private sector companies like Aban Great Offshore, Essar and Reliance have managed to grow rapidly as well with changeable degrees of success. Here is the list of the major petroleum Companies in India:- Indian Oil Corporation Ltd (IOCL):- The IOCL covers the whole hydrocarbon value chain from, pipeline transportation, marketing of petroleum products to exploration production of crude oil gas, marketing of natural gas, petrochemicals and refining. The sales turn over of Indian oil was Rs 271,074 corer and profits of Rs. 10,221 corer in 2009-10. Indian oils cross-country network of crude oil and product pipelines across 10,899 km and the largest in the country, meets the crucial energy needs of the consumers in an economical, environment and efficient manner. GAIL India:- GAIL (India) Limited, is Indias Natural Gas company, integrating all aspects of the Natural Gas value chain right from discovery to marketing. It emphasizes on clean fuel industrialization, creating a square of green energy corridors that connect major consumption centers with major gas fields in India. GAIL is growing its business to become a player in the International market. The companys revenue earned in 2009-10 was Rs 24,000 corer with net profit of 11%. It is a well managed fast growing company with high competitive barriers in India. Reliance  Industries:- It is Indias largest private petroleum company. The company achieving the remarkable growth in the last decade and is diversifying into Retail. In market top more than $30 billion it is Indias most valued company. It is also highly petroleum exporting company of India. The company is one of the largest oil refining and petrochemical complexes in the world at Jamnagar. Bharat Petroleum Corp. Ltd (BPCL):- it is the major distribution of petroleum, cooking gas and diesel in the Indian market. The companys revenue of Rs 36,000 corer and net profit of 0.5%. due to the government control The company suffer low margins and terrible stock price performance. Which forces the company to sell the product at below the cost? Even after the liberalization with increased global crude prices increasing the losses very much. The company produces a various range of products, from petrochemicals and solvents to aircraft fuel and specialty lubricants and markets them to several international and domestic airlines and hundreds of industries. Hindustan Petroleum Corp. Ltd (HPCL):- The company operates the largest refinery in the country producing Oils of international standards. This Refinery accounts for 40% of the Indias total Oil production. The company has two major refineries producing a large variety of petroleum fuels specialties. one in Mumbai and the other in Vishakhapatnam. Its huge marketing network consists of its zonal regional offices facilitated by a supply distribution infrastructure comprising terminals, aviation service stations, retail outlets, pipeline networks and LPG distributorships. The companys market share accounts for about 20% and 10% of the nations refining capacity. The company revenue earned was Rs 34,000 corer and net profit margin of 0.65% in 2010. ONGC Corporation:- The company ranks 3rd in petroleum Exploration Production industry. It produces 803 Million Metric Tones of crude and 485 Billion Cubic Meters of Natural Gas from 111 fields. It is the biggest multinational company with 40 oil and gas projects in 15 countries. The company earned Rs. 20,000 corer with net profit margin of 34% in 2010. NGC holds the largest share of hydrocarbon in India contributes over 79% of Indians oil and gas production. Distribution channel of the industry The petroleum distribution segment is rapidly adopting different kinds of supply chain solution. From crude oil selection to petroleum product distribution at the retail outlet it is chain with many links. The refining margins, the lead time associated with fundamental functions like product trading and crude buying unpredictability in oil prices make the entire process challenging. Implementation of these solution on a wide spread installations, however, is what the world is watching, as vast petroleum companies fight to chain the business. The petroleum industry has a vital need for both integration and implementation skills for taking the best value out of the differ distribution channel available. Underground, the gas station is quite modern. The tanks for super unleaded and for regular (the midgrade fuel) are larger than the normal tanks. Each tank is equipped with an electronic level check that conveys real time information about its status through a cable to the stations management system and then to the main inventory management system for the oil company whose products the gas station markets. The travels from the distribution channel push to demand pull is taking place in the section, where once the challenge was in getting the best deals on buying crude, the focus is shifting to give customer what he wants. The petroleum business is separated into refining and distribution segments. The focuses more on the distribution segment. There is a specific change to focus in the industry toward the distribution segment. The big oil companies have started monitoring the inventories of crude oil or any other petroleum products. The issues at the refining level are: which products to make in what quantity? Which crude to use? Which units to run? While the issues at the customer facing end or at the gas station are basic, namely run outs refines. The important functions within the distribution channel are optimization across alternative means of transportation, demand forecasting, replenishment method to avoid retains/run outs finally scheduling, which sequences the dispatch. Marketing and Distribution of Petroleum Products in India:- The public sector oil marketing companies (OMCs) which include Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (HPCL), Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (IOCL) and Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (BPCL) are primarily responsible for the marketing and distribution of petroleum products in India. With the opening of retail sector for the private players, Shell, Essar and Reliance Industries Ltd. (RIL) have also entered the retail marketing related to petroleum products. The marketing and distribution infrastructure in the petroleum sector include liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) distributorships, petrol/diesel stations, lubricants and greases outlets IOCL is the market leader in terms of marketing and distribution of petroleum products. Retail outlets in India:- The number of retail outlets (ROs) in India has increased from 31,650 in April 2006 to 40,819 in January 2011. IOCL has the widest network of ROs across India with 19,057 ROs as in January 2011. The number of LPG distributors in India has increased to 9,686 as in 2010 from 6,477 in 20011. Indias Navratna oil marketing companies Indian Oil, BPCL and HPCL- are set to report another quarter of heavy losses as they have failed to get compensation from the government for selling fuels below cost. The three oil marketing companies (OMCs) sell diesel, LPG for domestic use and kerosene through public distribution system at prices that are substantially below their costs, in accordance with the permission of their majority shareholder. In return, a small part of their losses is made good by discounts from upstream like ONGC and Oil India. The larger share of losses is made good by the government. During the June 12 quarter, the three oil marketers together had posted an unique net loss of .Rs40,536 corer as the dues from government did not arrive. The company is expecting most of the demand for Piped natural gas to come from domestic and commercial consumer sector. Limitation on subsidized LPG cylinders is expected to be a boon for its Piped natural gas business. Consumers might come forward to get a Piped natural gas connection as its rates would be economical compared to LPG cylinders. The running cost of Piped natural gas would be about 10 percent less than the cost of LPG. Piped natural gas is safer and more eco-friendly fuel for the user. As oil marketing companies move advance forcefully to decrease their distribution channels for LPG cylinders, the next few months will certainly prove trying for consumers. Currently, oil companies in India are going through a tough task of maintaining positive margins in a very unstable market of crude prices and increasing distribution cost. Oil companies also need to be prepared for active pricing scenarios for the coming future. Hence, the immediate need is to have a complete real time visibility of sales and inventory for perfect demand forecasts. Integration of different systems and different data to provide single consistent view and information to the oil company management thus forming a strong foundation for effective decision making. Key issues and current trends Issues in petroleum industries:- The global economy is a dynamic and ever-growing one in spite of the high cost of energy. This in turn is forging the demand for petrochemicals. The strong growth in demand is not backed by a sufficient supply so the cost is still to come down. Operating rates of major petrochemical product segments are very high presently. Problems faced by the India petrochemical industry:- The manufacturing units mostly use outdated format of technology and are not able to produce optimally There is a requirement for the modernization of equipments Excise duty on synthetic fiber should be rationalized Anticipation of reservation on Small Scale Units Plastic waste to be recycled and the littering habits to be discouraged India requires advantage on feedstock, so the import cost has to be brought down The industry should have access to the primary amenities of infrastructure One of the big issues is the difficulty in predicting the advance price, which will succeed in the market in the future months. Some indications are of course available with the futures prices prevailing in the exchanges. Some companies hedge their margins or crude prices by doing paper trading. The forward price is a vital input in the optimization process and can actually make the model for a particular product maximization based on its price. Current trends in petroleum industry Petroleum has proven to be the most flexible fuel source ever discovered, situated at the core of the modern industrial economy. While the industry is strong, it is subject to some very significant stresses:- à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Industry consolidation (24 mergers and acquisitions since 1997) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Global industrial expansion resulting in increased petroleum demand à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Tight supplies of economically extractable oil à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Political instability and terrorism à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ High per-barrel price that accelerates development of alternative energies à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Safety and the need to protect workers in hostile environments à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Speed required to establish a presence in new markets à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Need to spread infrastructure risk among competitors These stressors are causing oil companies to change the way they do business. From their cooperation with competitors to their massive investments in technology, from a renewed focus on safety and the environment to serious investigation of alternative fuels, these firms are reshaping the industry. How they manage these changes also influences how they view their real estate holdings and how they house the scientists and engineers who play a vital role in this transformation. The challenges oil and gas companies face are having a significant impact on how they view their real estate holdings and what kind of workplaces they provide their employees. These are important issues since many companies in this sector have vast real estate holdings. More and more these companies are managing these holdings from an enterprise-wide perspective, running their facilities like any other part of the business. They are realizing that facilities and furnishings can be a strategic tool for achieving the organizations business goals. That focus has several implications for the workplace. Petroleum includes all petroleum-based products, such as gasoline, oil, diesel fuel, kerosene, refined cleaners, and solvents. Organizations involved in upstream (exploring and extracting) and downstream activities (refining and marketing) for these petroleum products are among some of the most profitable companies in the world. Whether they are involved in upstream or downstream activities, whether they are public corporations or state-owned companies, players in the oil industry must operate within the context of significant issues and major trends that are shaping the long-term outlook for oil. Oil companies public corporations and state and non-state-owned enterprises are faced with increasing demand for petroleum products due to global industrial expansion. On the one hand, labors to get the conservative oil (produced from underground hydrocarbon reservoirs by means of production wells) have prompted oil companies to invest ever more heavily in technology and equipment. On the other, these firms have increased investments in producing unusual oil, including oil sands, shale oil, and extra heavy crude oil, some of which require additional processing to produce artificial crude. To spread the risk of investing in costly technology, equipment, and processes firms are entering into joint-venture relationships designed to spread infrastructure risk among competitors in order for the entire industry to remain healthy. In some cases, firms have required mergers or acquisitions in order to expand resources for highly technical exploration and advanced production. . Other changes on the energy scene, particularly increasing prices for both oil and gas, are prompting several companies to take a broader view of their business. They are transforming themselves through investments in alternative energy sources, including solar, wind, biomass, geothermal energy, and fuel cell technology. The realization that alternative fuels and renewable energy technologies will play an increasingly important role as a bridge between the current focus on hydrocarbons and the clean, cheap promise of hydrogen has prompted many oil companies to invest heavily in these areas. Using technology to boost productivity The technology that oil companies provide their employees is principal perimeter, especially where operational efficiencies can be obtained. Management requires solid standard metrics in order to justify investing in technology. India has steadily established itself in the core of the international production of petrochemical and petrochemical related products in the present state of affairs. With the economic growth cycle slowing down in the United States, the Asian developing nations, especially India, would preferably stand in the global petrochemical market as a producer of these products. This is one of the major challenges facing India petrochemical industry. PESTEL analysis PESTEL analysis stands for Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental and Legal analysis and describes a framework of macro-environmental factors used in the environmental component of  strategic management. It is a part of the external analysis when conducting strategic analysis and gives an overview of the different macro environmental factors that the company has to take into consideration. Political:- Political factors are degree to government intervenes in the economy. Specifically, political factors include areas such as tax policy, labor   law, law, trade, tariffs, and political stability. Political factors may also consist of goods and services which the government wants to provide or be provided and those that the government does not want to be provided. Besides, governments have great authority on the health education, and infrastructure of   a nation. Economical:- Economic factors include growth, interest, exchange  and the inflation. These factors have major impacts on how businesses run and make decisions. For example, interest rates affect a firms  cost of  capital and therefore to what degree a business grows and expands. Exchange rates affect the costs of exporting goods and the supply and price of imported goods in an economy. Social:- Social factors include the cultural aspects and include health consciousness,  population growth rate, age distribution, career attitudes and emphasis on safety. Trends in social factors affect the demand for a companys products and how that company operates. For example, an old population may imply a smaller and less willing workforce (thus increasing the cost of labor). Moreover; companies may change a variety of management strategies to adapt to these social trends (such as recruiting older workers). Technological:- Technological factors include ecological and environmental aspects, such as RD activity, automation, technology incentives and the rate of  technological change. They can find out  barriers to entry, minimum efficient production level and influence outsourcing decisions. In addition, technological shifts can affect costs, quality, and lead to innovation. Environmental:- Environmental factors include weather, climate. Additionally, increasing awareness to climate change is affecting how companies operate and the products they offer it is both creating new markets and diminishing or destroying existing ones. Legal:- Legal factors include discrimination, consumer, antitrust, employment law, and health. These factors can affect how a company operates, its costs, and the demand for its products. Conclusion Crude oil is one of the most necessitated worldwide required commodities. Any smallest amount fluctuation in crude oil prices can have both direct and indirect pressure on the economy of the countries. The instability of crude oil prices group many companies away. Therefore, prices have been regularly and closely monito